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{{Warbox|conflict=Middle Eastern theatre|partof=
World War I, [1914-Aug 10, 1920|result= Overwhelming Ottoman Defeat [Treaty of Brest-Litovsk,
Treaty of Batum,
Treaty of Sèvres.]|combatant1=, Military Mission of the German Empire,
[Democratic Republic of Armenia,
British Empire,
France
Arab Tribes] 3,
891,000
Wounded in action,
240,000 sick,
103,731 MIO,
239,000-250,000 Prisoner of war 1, tens of thousands
AWOL4] gov. resources.
2 Not active soldiers, but total number registered during the war. Includes units like Kuva-i İnzibatiye that had never fought against the Triple Entente.
3Total (KIA+WIA): 253,000 Gallipoli Campaign, 270,000
Caucasus Campaign which 80,000
Battle of Sarikamis, 220,000 Mesopotamian Campaign, 200,000 Sinai and Palestine Campaign, 20,000 Aden and Persia. 4 Very high in
Caucasus Campaign, MIO was reported.-->The Middle Eastern theatre of
World War I was fought between Allies of World War I, mostly of the British Empire and Russian Empire Empires, which also included Arab Revolt under Sinai and Palestine Campaign, Democratic Republic of Armenia after Russian Revolution of 1917 and Central Powers, mostly of the Ottoman Empire and a Military Mission of the German Empire. The warfare on the theatre began on October 29, 1914, hostilities ended on October 30, 1918 and a peace treaty was signed on August 10, 1920. This theatre was the biggest in territory among all theatres of WWI and included four main campaigns (Sinai and Palestine Campaign, Mesopotamian Campaign, Caucasus Campaign and Battle of Gallipoli) and the minor campaigns of #Arabia and Southern Arabia Campaigns, Aden, and Persia.
Prelude
The Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers in October–November
1914, pursuant to the secret Ottoman-German Alliance The Treaty of Alliance Between Germany and Turkey 2 August, 1914 signed on August 2, 1914, threatening Russia's
Caucasus territories and Britain's communications with British Raj and the East via the
Suez Canal.
The Ottoman Empire's entry into hostilities occurred on
October 29, 1914 when German battlecruiser
SMS Goeben and light cruiser SMS Breslau operating under Turkish flag
SMS Goeben#Black Sea operations Russian Black Sea port of
Odessa.
Activities
1914
Mesopotamian Campaign: The campaign was fought in Mesopotamia mainly in the Tigris River valley region of what is now Iraq and included battles on the
Persian Gulf coast, Basra and numerous struggles around
Kut, and Baghdad.
Caucasus Campaign: Caucasus Campaign campaign was fought in the Caucasus and eastern
Anatolia (northeastern
Turkey) between Russian and Turkish armies. The Ottoman Empire suffered a crushing defeat in Battle of Sarikamis in November-December.
1915
Mesopotamian Campaign: Initially the Ottomans were successful in repelling enemy incursions. However after the disastrous
Siege of Kut things reversed.
Caucasus Campaign: The Russians went on the offensive advancing as far as
Lake Van but were ultimately driven back by the Ottomans. Turkish repressions again Armenian population in Analtolia suspected of pro-Russian sentiment grew into widespread Armenian Genocide. Fighting was largely inconclusive since the focus of Ottoman and Russian war effort shifted to the Dardanelles Campaign and the
Eastern Front (World War I) respectively.
Battle of Gallipoli: April 25 sets the
Battle of Gallipoli (tr:Çanakkale Savaşlari) which was also known as in
Australia, New Zealand and
Dominion of Newfoundland it is known simply as "Battle of Gallipoli". A combined British and French operation was mounted in order to eventually capture the Ottoman capital of Constantinople (now Istanbul). The campaign started with a Naval attempt to force the
Dardanelles. When this failed the decision was taken by the Allies to seize the European side of the Dardanelles. The land campaign took place on the Turkish
peninsula of
Gallipoli in 1915 during the First World War. The land attempt failed, and an estimated 131,000 soldiers were killed and 262,000 wounded.
Arab Revolt: Starting in 1915, the British based in
Egypt tried to incite the Arabs living near the
Red Sea and inland (in modern-day
Saudi Arabia) to revolt against the Ottoman Empire.
Sinai and Palestine Campaign: The Ottoman Empire launched an attack across the
Sinai Peninsula with the objective of destroying or capturing the Suez Canal. Attack was unsuccessful.
1916
Arab Revolt: In 1916, a combination of diplomacy and genuine dislike of the new leaders of the Ottoman Empire (the
Three Pashas) convinced
Sherif Hussein ibn Ali of
Mecca to begin a revolt. The leadership of this revolt was given to two of his sons:
Faisal I of Iraq and Abdullah I of Jordan though the planning and direction for the war was largely the work of Thomas Edward Lawrence.
Caucasus Campaign: The Russian offensive in northeastern Turkey culminated with
Erzerum Campaign in February and Caucasian Front (WWI)#Battle of Trabzon.2C April in April.
Sinai and Palestine Campaign: The Ottoman Empire launched two attacks across the
Sinai Peninsula with the objective of destroying or capturing the Suez Canal. Both attacks (1915, 1916) were unsuccessful, though not very costly by the standards of the Great War. The British then went on the offensive and attacked east into Palestine. Two failed attempts to capture the Ottoman fort of Gaza resulted in sweeping changes to the British command and the arrival of
Edmund Allenby, 1st Viscount Allenby, along with many reinforcements.
1917
Mesopotamian Campaign: British Empire forces reorganized and Fall of Baghdad (1917) in March 1917.
Caucasus Campaign: Russia effectively withdrew from the war in
1917; Ottoman Empire eventually regained the prewar territories lost during the campaign under the
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk of 1918.
Arab Revolt: The revolt was a success, aided immensely by General Allenby's conquest of Palestine in 1917 (see the Sinai and Palestine Campaign for details).
Sinai and Palestine Campaign: Late in 1917, Allenby's Egyptian Expeditionary Force smashed the Ottoman defences, captured
Gaza and then captured
Jerusalem just before Christmas. This victory was widely promoted in the Allied press.
The British captured
Jerusalem and the surrounding area: While strategically of minimal importance, this event was key in the creation of Israel as a separate nation in 1948.
End of hostilities, October 30, 1918
The activity in this campaign was ended with the sign of the
Armistice of Mudros was signed in aboard of HMS Agamemnon in Mudros port on the island of Lemnos on
October 30 1918.
Peace Treaty, August 10, 1920
The
Treaty of Sèvres of August 10, 1920. The treaty was signed by the Ottoman Government. However, it was rejected by the
Turkish national movement, and never came into effect.
Command Structures
Ottoman
The Ottoman Empire fielded a large but ineffective army during World War I. Their offensive operations were failures, most of their best generals were in fact
German Empire (e.g.
Otto Liman von Sanders, Colmar Freiherr von der Goltz,
Erich von Falkenhayn and Friedrich Freiherr Kress von Kressenstein), with only one effective Turkish Commander,
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (later Ataturk), and just about all their modern war equipment (war ships, heavy artillery, machine guns, railroads, and air-planes) were built by Germans or Austrians and were maintained by German and Austrian engineers.
When holding defensive fortified positions the Ottoman Army was often able to beat back major attacks, and tens of thousands of British and Russian soldiers died making fruitless assaults on Turkish positions. However, the only successful Ottoman military operations were defensive and they suffered many defeats when attacking and defending.
Unlike the army of
Austria-Hungary which essentially fell apart in 1918, the Ottoman Army was still partially intact and partially effective to the end of the war. Despite losing its armies in Palestine and Mesopotamia in the fall of 1918, it maintained a combat-effective army based around Istanbul. In 1918, the Ottoman Army was able to recapture all their lost territory in Armenia, if against weak opposition. In fact, the Ottoman Army even managed to reach
Baku just before the war ended.
Despite the occasional successes and sometimes capable leaders, on the whole the Ottoman Army was a weak partner to the German Army during World War I. The Ottoman Empire almost certainly would have been defeated by the middle of 1915 without German military leadership and aid.
British
Russian
Casualties
- Ottoman Muslim casualties
Timeline
Footnotes
Further reading
- The Anglo-Russian Entente:Agreement concerning Persia 1907
- The France, British and Russian joint declaration over the situation in Armenia published on May 24, 1915
- Sykes-Picot Agreement 15 May & 16 May, 1916.
- The Middle East during World War I By Professor David R Woodward for the BBC
{{Warbox|conflict=Middle Eastern theatre|partof=
World War I, [1914-
Aug 10,
1920|result= Overwhelming Ottoman Defeat [Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, Treaty of Batum,
Treaty of Sèvres.]|combatant1=, Military Mission of the German Empire,
[Democratic Republic of Armenia,
British Empire,
FranceArab Tribes] 3,
891,000 Wounded in action,
240,000 sick,
103,731 MIO,
239,000-250,000
Prisoner of war 1, tens of thousands
AWOL4] gov. resources.
2 Not active soldiers, but total number registered during the war. Includes units like
Kuva-i İnzibatiye that had never fought against the Triple Entente.
3Total (KIA+WIA): 253,000
Gallipoli Campaign, 270,000 Caucasus Campaign which 80,000
Battle of Sarikamis, 220,000
Mesopotamian Campaign, 200,000
Sinai and Palestine Campaign, 20,000 Aden and Persia. 4 Very high in
Caucasus Campaign, MIO was reported.-->The Middle Eastern theatre of World War I
was fought between Allies of World War I, mostly of the British Empire and Russian Empire Empires, which also included Arab Revolt under Sinai and Palestine Campaign, Democratic Republic of Armenia after Russian Revolution of 1917 and Central Powers, mostly of the Ottoman Empire and a Military Mission of the German Empire. The warfare on the theatre began on October 29, 1914, hostilities ended on October 30, 1918 and a peace treaty was signed on August 10, 1920. This theatre was the biggest in territory among all theatres of WWI and included four main campaigns (Sinai and Palestine Campaign, Mesopotamian Campaign, Caucasus Campaign and Battle of Gallipoli) and the minor campaigns of #Arabia and Southern Arabia Campaigns, Aden, and Persia.
Prelude
The Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers in October–November 1914, pursuant to the secret
Ottoman-German Alliance The Treaty of Alliance Between Germany and Turkey
2 August, 1914 signed on August 2, 1914, threatening Russia's
Caucasus territories and Britain's communications with
British Raj and the East via the
Suez Canal.
The Ottoman Empire's entry into hostilities occurred on October 29, 1914 when German battlecruiser
SMS Goeben and light cruiser SMS Breslau operating under Turkish flag
SMS Goeben#Black Sea operations Russian Black Sea port of
Odessa.
Activities
1914
Mesopotamian Campaign: The campaign was fought in Mesopotamia mainly in the
Tigris River valley region of what is now
Iraq and included battles on the
Persian Gulf coast,
Basra and numerous struggles around
Kut, and Baghdad.
Caucasus Campaign: Caucasus Campaign campaign was fought in the Caucasus and eastern
Anatolia (northeastern Turkey) between Russian and Turkish armies. The Ottoman Empire suffered a crushing defeat in Battle of Sarikamis in November-December.
1915
Mesopotamian Campaign: Initially the
Ottomans were successful in repelling enemy incursions. However after the disastrous Siege of Kut things reversed.
Caucasus Campaign: The Russians went on the offensive advancing as far as Lake Van but were ultimately driven back by the Ottomans. Turkish repressions again Armenian population in Analtolia suspected of pro-Russian sentiment grew into widespread
Armenian Genocide. Fighting was largely inconclusive since the focus of Ottoman and Russian war effort shifted to the Dardanelles Campaign and the Eastern Front (World War I) respectively.
Battle of Gallipoli: April 25 sets the Battle of Gallipoli (tr:Çanakkale Savaşlari) which was also known as in
Australia, New Zealand and
Dominion of Newfoundland it is known simply as "
Battle of Gallipoli". A combined British and French operation was mounted in order to eventually capture the Ottoman capital of
Constantinople (now Istanbul). The campaign started with a Naval attempt to force the
Dardanelles. When this failed the decision was taken by the Allies to seize the European side of the Dardanelles. The land campaign took place on the Turkish
peninsula of Gallipoli in 1915 during the First World War. The land attempt failed, and an estimated 131,000 soldiers were killed and 262,000 wounded.
Arab Revolt: Starting in 1915, the British based in Egypt tried to incite the Arabs living near the Red Sea and inland (in modern-day
Saudi Arabia) to revolt against the Ottoman Empire.
Sinai and Palestine Campaign: The Ottoman Empire launched an attack across the
Sinai Peninsula with the objective of destroying or capturing the Suez Canal. Attack was unsuccessful.
1916
Arab Revolt: In 1916, a combination of diplomacy and genuine dislike of the new leaders of the Ottoman Empire (the Three Pashas) convinced Sherif Hussein ibn Ali of
Mecca to begin a revolt. The leadership of this revolt was given to two of his sons: Faisal I of Iraq and Abdullah I of Jordan though the planning and direction for the war was largely the work of
Thomas Edward Lawrence.
Caucasus Campaign: The Russian offensive in northeastern Turkey culminated with Erzerum Campaign in February and Caucasian Front (WWI)#Battle of Trabzon.2C April in April.
Sinai and Palestine Campaign: The Ottoman Empire launched two attacks across the
Sinai Peninsula with the objective of destroying or capturing the Suez Canal. Both attacks (1915, 1916) were unsuccessful, though not very costly by the standards of the Great War. The British then went on the offensive and attacked east into Palestine. Two failed attempts to capture the Ottoman fort of Gaza resulted in sweeping changes to the British command and the arrival of Edmund Allenby, 1st Viscount Allenby, along with many reinforcements.
1917
Mesopotamian Campaign: British Empire forces reorganized and
Fall of Baghdad (1917) in March 1917.
Caucasus Campaign: Russia effectively withdrew from the war in
1917; Ottoman Empire eventually regained the prewar territories lost during the campaign under the
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk of 1918.
Arab Revolt: The revolt was a success, aided immensely by General Allenby's conquest of Palestine in 1917 (see the
Sinai and Palestine Campaign for details).
Sinai and Palestine Campaign: Late in 1917, Allenby's
Egyptian Expeditionary Force smashed the Ottoman defences, captured Gaza and then captured
Jerusalem just before Christmas. This victory was widely promoted in the Allied press.
The British captured
Jerusalem and the surrounding area: While strategically of minimal importance, this event was key in the creation of Israel as a separate nation in 1948.
End of hostilities, October 30, 1918
The activity in this campaign was ended with the sign of the
Armistice of Mudros was signed in aboard of
HMS Agamemnon in Mudros port on the island of Lemnos on
October 30 1918.
Peace Treaty, August 10, 1920
The
Treaty of Sèvres of August 10, 1920. The treaty was signed by the Ottoman Government. However, it was rejected by the
Turkish national movement, and never came into effect.
Command Structures
Ottoman
The Ottoman Empire fielded a large but ineffective army during World War I. Their offensive operations were failures, most of their best generals were in fact
German Empire (e.g.
Otto Liman von Sanders,
Colmar Freiherr von der Goltz,
Erich von Falkenhayn and Friedrich Freiherr Kress von Kressenstein), with only one effective Turkish Commander, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (later Ataturk), and just about all their modern war equipment (war ships, heavy artillery, machine guns, railroads, and air-planes) were built by Germans or Austrians and were maintained by German and Austrian engineers.
When holding defensive fortified positions the Ottoman Army was often able to beat back major attacks, and tens of thousands of British and Russian soldiers died making fruitless assaults on Turkish positions. However, the only successful Ottoman military operations were defensive and they suffered many defeats when attacking and defending.
Unlike the army of Austria-Hungary which essentially fell apart in 1918, the Ottoman Army was still partially intact and partially effective to the end of the war. Despite losing its armies in Palestine and Mesopotamia in the fall of 1918, it maintained a combat-effective army based around Istanbul. In 1918, the Ottoman Army was able to recapture all their lost territory in Armenia, if against weak opposition. In fact, the Ottoman Army even managed to reach
Baku just before the war ended.
Despite the occasional successes and sometimes capable leaders, on the whole the Ottoman Army was a weak partner to the German Army during World War I. The Ottoman Empire almost certainly would have been defeated by the middle of 1915 without German military leadership and aid.
British
- Mediterranean Expeditionary Force
- British Dardanelles Army
Russian
Casualties
Timeline
Footnotes
Further reading
- The Anglo-Russian Entente:Agreement concerning Persia 1907
- The France, British and Russian joint declaration over the situation in Armenia published on May 24, 1915
- Sykes-Picot Agreement 15 May & 16 May, 1916.
- The Middle East during World War I By Professor David R Woodward for the BBC
Category:Middle Eastern theatre of World War I - Wikimedia Commons
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